How have public debt ratios been reduced in the past?
We look at how the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Spain, Italy and Japan have managed to reduce their public debt ratios at times in the past. The three possibilities are well-known: Higher real potential growth; Real interest rates that are lower than real growth (for example if inflation does not drive up nominal interest rates); A restrictive fiscal policy. We see 24 episodes of public debt ratio reduction across the seven countries, including: 18 episodes of strong growth; 11 episodes of below-growth interest rates , including : 5 episodes thanks to inflation; 15 episodes of restrictive fiscal policy. So all methods have been used, above all growth and the return to primary fiscal surpluses.